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Mughal Rule in India
Category: GS-1 (History & Art & Culture), GS-4 (Ethics), Prelims, Essay
Historical Overview
- Founded in: 1526 by Babur after defeating Ibrahim Lodi at First Battle of Panipat.
- Peak: Under Akbar, Shah Jahan; reached zenith in cultural and territorial dominance.
- Decline: Post-Aurangzeb; regional powers emerged, European companies gained foothold.
Mughal Emperors
| Emperor |
Reign |
Detailed Overview |
| Babur |
1526–1530 |
- Founder of the Mughal Empire in India after defeating Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat (1526).
- Won the Battle of Khanwa (1527) against Rana Sanga and Battle of Chanderi (1528) against Medini Rai, consolidating Rajput resistance.
- Introduced gunpowder artillery and Tulughma strategy, revolutionizing Indian battlefield tactics.
- Wrote Tuzuk-i-Baburi (Baburnama), a Persian memoir offering geographical, cultural, and political insights.
- Laid the administrative foundation, but faced resistance from Afghan chiefs and Rajputs; governance was not yet institutionalized.
- Fought the Battle of Ghagra (1529) against the Afghans and the Sultan of Bengal; marked his military supremacy in the east.
|
| Humayun |
1530–1540, 1555–56 |
- Lost to Sher Shah Suri at Battle of Chausa (1539) and Battle of Kannauj (1540), forcing him into exile.
- Took refuge in Persia; formed a diplomatic alliance with Shah Tahmasp, gaining military support and cultural exposure.
- Recaptured Delhi in 1555 by defeating Afghan forces at the Battle of Sirhind.
- Introduced Persian influences in court etiquette, administration, architecture, and art.
- Died after falling from Sher Mandal library stairs in 1556, leaving the empire to Akbar.
- Subject of Humayun-nama by Gulbadan Begum, a rare female historical account of the time.
|
| Akbar |
1556–1605 |
- Defeated Hemu in the Second Battle of Panipat (1556), establishing his rule.
- Mansabdari System and Zabt revenue system institutionalized Mughal administration.
- Fought numerous campaigns: Battle of Haldighati (1576) against Maharana Pratap; annexed Gujarat, Bengal, and Deccan regions.
- Propounded Sulh-i-Kul (peace for all) and founded Din-i-Ilahi, promoting religious synthesis.
- Held court at Fatehpur Sikri; promoted translations of Sanskrit texts; constructed Buland Darwaza, Diwan-i-Khas.
- Hosted Jesuit missionaries; court scholars included Abul Fazl (wrote Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari).
|
| Jahangir |
1605–1627 |
- Installed Zanjir-i-Adal (chain of justice) to reinforce fair governance.
- Faced revolt by Prince Khurram (later Shah Jahan); quelled internal dissents effectively.
- Allowed English ambassador Sir Thomas Roe and earlier William Hawkins; permitted limited trade rights.
- Encouraged Mughal miniature painting; patron of artists like Ustad Mansur.
- Wrote his own memoirs Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri; records flora, fauna, daily affairs.
- Attempted reconquest of Kandahar but lost to the Safavids (1622).
|
| Shah Jahan |
1628–1658 |
- Built architectural masterpieces: Taj Mahal, Red Fort, and Jama Masjid.
- Fought Central Asian campaigns to reclaim Kandahar but failed in the long term.
- Maintained a centralized bureaucracy; efficient revenue policies under Wazir Saadullah Khan.
- Faced Portuguese challenge in Bengal; captured Hooghly from them (1632).
- European travelers like Bernier, Tavernier, Manucci visited; gave vivid accounts of court life.
- Dealt with internal strife during later years; imprisoned by son Aurangzeb after 1658 succession war.
|
| Aurangzeb |
1658–1707 |
- Defeated brothers in Battle of Samugarh (1658) to ascend the throne.
- Expanded empire to its greatest territorial extent; annexed Deccan states like Bijapur and Golconda.
- Re-imposed Jizya; enforced strict Sharia; banned music, art, and non-Islamic festivals.
- Compiled Fatawa-i-Alamgiri – Islamic law manual; supported madrasas and conservative ulema.
- Long drawn conflicts with Marathas (Shivaji and Sambhaji) drained imperial finances.
- Faced multiple revolts – Satnamis, Jats, Rajputs, Sikhs – weakening central control.
|
Mughal Administrative System
- Central Administration: The Mughal Empire was an absolute monarchy, with the emperor as the supreme head of the state. He was the chief executive, legislator, and military commander.
- Council of Ministers: Included Wazir (prime minister), Mir Bakshi (military chief), Diwan-i-Insha (foreign affairs), and Sadr-us-Sudur (religious grants).
- Provincial Administration: Empire divided into Subas, governed by Subedars. Each Suba had a Diwan (revenue), Bakshi (military), Qazi (judicial), Kotwal (police).
- Revenue Administration:
- Zabt System: Introduced under Akbar by Todar Mal. Based on measurement of land and average crop production.
- Dahsala System: Average of 10 years’ produce was calculated to fix land revenue.
- Ryotwari & Zamindari: Practiced in some regions; Zamindars acted as intermediaries collecting revenue.
- Mansabdari System: Introduced by Akbar. All officials, civil or military, were ranked using the zat (personal rank) and sawar (cavalry rank) criteria. It regulated promotions, salaries, and military responsibilities.
- Judicial System: Based on Islamic law (Sharia). Emperor was the supreme judge. Qazis and Muftis handled local justice. Hindus were generally tried according to their own laws.
- Military Organization: Mughal army comprised cavalry, infantry, artillery, and navy. Jagirdars maintained troops in return for land assignments.
- Intelligence & Espionage: A highly effective network of spies (barids) reported directly to the emperor, ensuring tight control.
Socio-Cultural Impact of the Mughals
- Art & Architecture: Marked by the Indo-Islamic-Persian synthesis. Masterpieces include Taj Mahal, Fatehpur Sikri, Agra Fort, Buland Darwaza, Jama Masjid, and Shalimar Gardens. Shah Jahan’s reign is considered the zenith of Mughal architecture.
- Painting: Miniature painting schools developed extensively under Akbar and Jahangir. Hamzanama was one of the earliest illustrated epics. Paintings were used to chronicle court events, flora-fauna, and religious themes. Prominent artists: Bishandas, Basawan, Ustad Mansur.
- Language & Literature: Persian was the court and literary language; many Sanskrit works were translated under Akbar’s patronage. Urdu evolved as a syncretic language combining Persian, Arabic, Turkish, and local dialects.
- Music: Akbar patronized musicians like Tansen. Dhrupad and Khayal flourished. Music was deeply influenced by Bhakti and Sufi traditions. Later, Aurangzeb banned music in court, but it survived at the regional level.
- Religion & Philosophy: Akbar’s Sulh-i-Kul promoted religious tolerance. Din-i-Ilahi was a philosophical initiative aimed at blending elements of various faiths. In contrast, Aurangzeb reversed these trends by enforcing orthodoxy and Islamic law (Sharia).
- Education & Institutions: Madrasas and Maktabs were prevalent for Islamic education. Akbar established libraries and encouraged translations of Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Bible into Persian.
- Costume, Food & Festivals: The Mughals brought Persianate styles in clothing (Jama, Turban). Food culture saw the fusion of Central Asian and Indian dishes, leading to the development of Mughlai cuisine. Festivals like Nowruz and Id were celebrated alongside Diwali and Holi under liberal rulers.
Mughal Art, Architecture & Literature
The Mughal period (1526–1857) was a golden era for art, architecture, and literature in India. The fusion of Persian, Indian, and Central Asian influences gave rise to a unique cultural synthesis that left an indelible mark on Indian civilization.
Monuments – Architectural Grandeur
Mughal architecture is renowned for its symmetry, grandeur, and intricate ornamentation. It combined Islamic, Persian, and indigenous Indian styles to create some of the most iconic structures in South Asia.
- Taj Mahal (Agra): Commissioned by Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal; considered the pinnacle of Mughal architecture. Built with white marble and adorned with pietra dura inlay work.
- Fatehpur Sikri: Akbar’s capital city built in red sandstone; showcases Indo-Islamic architectural fusion. Key structures include Buland Darwaza, Panch Mahal, Diwan-i-Khas, and Ibadat Khana.
- Red Fort (Delhi): Built by Shah Jahan as the imperial palace complex; features the famous Diwan-i-Aam and Diwan-i-Khas, and the Peacock Throne.
- Jama Masjid (Delhi): One of the largest mosques in India, constructed under Shah Jahan using red sandstone and white marble.
- Humayun’s Tomb (Delhi): First garden-tomb in India; inspired the design of the Taj Mahal. Built by Haji Begum, Humayun’s widow.
- Agra Fort: A UNESCO World Heritage Site, it served as a military-cum-royal residence during Akbar’s reign.
- Bibi Ka Maqbara (Aurangabad): Often referred to as "Mini Taj," it was built by Aurangzeb’s son Azam Shah in memory of his mother Dilras Banu Begum.
- Shalimar Gardens (Lahore & Delhi): Symbolized the Mughal love for charbagh-style gardens, representing paradise in Islamic tradition.
Miniature Painting – Royal Patronage
Mughal painting reached its zenith under royal patronage, especially during Akbar’s reign. It was primarily used to illustrate manuscripts and court chronicles.
- Akbar’s Era: Artists like Basawan and Daswanth were employed to illustrate texts such as the *Hamzanama* and *Akbarnama*. These paintings depicted battles, court scenes, and mythological themes.
- Jahangir’s Era: Known as the “Mughal connoisseur of painting,” Jahangir encouraged individual portraiture and naturalism. Artists like Ustad Mansur painted flora and fauna with scientific accuracy.
- Themes: Portraits of emperors, battle scenes, allegorical subjects, and nature studies.
- Technique: Use of vibrant colors, fine brushwork, and detailed background landscapes.
- Decline: Under Aurangzeb, who discouraged arts due to religious orthodoxy, miniature painting gradually declined.
Music & Dance – Cultural Synthesis
Mughal rulers were great patrons of music and dance, fostering a blend of Persian and Indian traditions.
- Hindustani Classical Music: Reached new heights under Akbar. Tansen, one of the Navaratnas, revolutionized Dhrupad singing and composed several ragas like Deepak and Malhar.
- Court Performances: Musicians like Baiju Bawra and Surdas were honored at the royal court. Instruments like the sitar, tabla, and sarod gained popularity.
- Dance: Kathak evolved significantly during this period, blending Persian grace with Indian storytelling through mudras and expressions.
- Sufi and Bhakti Influence: Sufi qawwalis and devotional songs were often performed in royal courts, reflecting the syncretic culture of the time.
Literature – Multilingual Flourishing
The Mughals promoted literature in Persian, Turkish, Arabic, Sanskrit, and later Urdu, leading to a rich literary heritage.
- Persian Works:
- Tuzuk-i-Baburi: Babur’s memoir written in Turkish; later translated into Persian and Arabic.
- Akbarnama & Ain-i-Akbari: Authored by Abul Fazl; the former is a historical account while the latter details administration, revenue system, and social life under Akbar.
- Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri: Autobiography of Emperor Jahangir, known for its poetic and descriptive prose.
- Padshahnama: History of Shah Jahan’s reign by Abdul Hamid Lahori.
- Fatwa-i-Alamgiri: A compendium of Islamic law compiled during Aurangzeb’s reign.
- Urdu and Regional Languages: Urdu began evolving as a lingua franca during this period, influenced by Persian and local dialects.
- Translation Movement:
- Dara Shikoh: Translated Sanskrit texts like the *Upanishads* and *Yoga Vashistha* into Persian, promoting interfaith understanding.
- Majma-ul-Bahrain: Dara Shikoh’s treatise comparing Hindu and Islamic mysticism.
- Regional Contributions:
- Tulsidas: Wrote *Ramcharitmanas* in Awadhi, making the Ramayana accessible to common people.
- Surdas: Composed *Sursagar*, devotional poetry dedicated to Lord Krishna in Braj Bhasha.
- Poetry and Philosophy:
- Persian poets like Amir Khusrau and later Mir Taqi Mir laid the foundation for Urdu ghazal traditions.
- Mystical literature flourished with Sufi poetry influencing both Muslim and Hindu audiences.
Key Literary Works of the Mughal Period
| Book |
Author |
Description / Content Summary |
Relevance for UPSC |
| Tuzuk-i-Baburi |
Babur |
Autobiography of Babur written in Turkish. Provides insights into his military campaigns, personal life, and observations about India. |
Important source for early Mughal history; rare example of a ruler's autobiography in medieval India. |
| Akbarnama |
Abu'l Fazl |
Chronicle of Akbar’s reign. Divided into three volumes, with detailed accounts of battles, administrative reforms, and socio-cultural conditions. |
Essential for understanding Akbar’s policies, administration, and court culture. |
| Ain-i-Akbari |
Abu'l Fazl |
Detailed account of Akbar’s administration, revenue system, army, religious policies, and social customs. |
Highly relevant for GS-1 and Prelims; often quoted in MCQs and mains questions on governance. |
| Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri |
Jahangir |
Autobiographical account by Emperor Jahangir. Contains descriptions of nature, court life, and administrative affairs. |
Useful for understanding Mughal society, art, and environment under Jahangir. |
| Iqbalnama-i-Jahangiri |
Muhammad Hadi |
Biography of Jahangir compiled later; complements Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri. |
Lesser known but useful for optional papers and essay writing. |
| Padshahnama |
Abdul Hamid Lahori |
Official chronicle of Shah Jahan’s reign. Rich in details about wars, architecture, and court life. |
Important for studying Shah Jahan’s era and architectural achievements like Taj Mahal. |
| Alamgir Nama |
Mirza Muhammad Kazim |
Historical account of Aurangzeb’s early military campaigns and rise to power. |
Helpful in analyzing Aurangzeb’s policies and decline of the empire. |
| Fatwa-i-Alamgiri |
Compiled under Aurangzeb |
Compilation of Islamic law based on Hanafi jurisprudence; used as legal reference across the empire. |
Relevant for understanding Aurangzeb’s orthodox policies and legal framework. |
| Humayun Nama |
Gulbadan Begum |
Biography of Humayun written by his sister. Offers a unique female perspective on Mughal court life. |
Adds socio-cultural context; useful for essays and optional subjects like Sociology/Anthropology. |
| Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh |
Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Badauni) |
Chronicles events from Akbar’s reign, including debates on Din-i Ilahi and religious policies. |
Critical for understanding religious and political changes under Akbar. |
| Shahnameh |
Firdausi |
Persian epic detailing the history of Persian kings. Widely read in Mughal courts. |
Reflects cultural influence of Persian literature on Mughal elite. |
| Ramcharitmanas |
Tulsidas |
Hindi adaptation of the Ramayana in Awadhi language. Popularized Hindu epics among common people. |
Shows synthesis of Indian traditions and Mughal patronage of regional languages. |
| Sursagar |
Sur Das |
Collection of devotional poetry dedicated to Lord Krishna. Written in Braj Bhasha. |
Relevant for Bhakti movement and cultural integration during Mughal rule. |
| Rag Darpan |
Sarang Dev |
Treatise on Indian classical music, translated into Persian during Akbar’s reign. |
Highlights Mughal interest in Indian arts and music. |
| Dilkusha (Nuskha-i-Dilkusha) |
Bhimsen Saxena |
Account of Aurangzeb’s Deccan campaigns and late Mughal politics. |
Valuable for analyzing reasons behind Mughal decline and Deccan resistance. |
| Majma-ul-Bahrain |
Dara Shikoh |
Philosophical treatise comparing Hindu and Islamic mysticism; promotes interfaith harmony. |
Relevant for GS-4 Ethics and Essay topics on secularism and pluralism. |
| Yoga Vashistha (Translated) |
Dara Shikoh |
Translation of Sanskrit philosophical text into Persian, reflecting syncretic ideals. |
Relevant for understanding Akbar and Dara Shikoh’s policy of Sulh-i-Kul. |
| Padmavat |
Malik Muhammad Jayasi |
Epic poem in Awadhi; allegorical tale of Queen Padmavati of Chittor and Alauddin Khilji. |
Useful for understanding literature under Mughal cultural patronage. |
Relation with European Powers
- Portuguese: First Europeans to arrive (Vasco da Gama, 1498); received Farman from Jahangir.
- Dutch: Established factories in Surat and Masulipatnam; declined due to British competition.
- English East India Company: Received Farman from Jahangir (1613); later expanded under weak Mughal successors.
- French East India Company: Founded in 1664; active in Pondicherry; defeated by British in Carnatic Wars.
- Mughal Policy: Initially tolerant; emperors issued FARMANS allowing trade in return for tribute or naval assistance.
- British Takeover: Exploited Mughal weakness post-Aurangzeb; consolidated power through alliances and wars.
Reasons for Decline of Mughal Empire
- Weak Succession: The Mughal Empire witnessed incompetent and ineffective successors after Aurangzeb’s death, which led to intense factionalism and political instability within the court.
- Deccan Wars: Prolonged and exhausting military campaigns against the Marathas in the Deccan region drained the empire’s financial and military resources significantly.
- Rise of Regional Powers: Autonomous and semi-independent states such as Bengal, Hyderabad, Awadh, and Mysore emerged, weakening central authority and territorial cohesion.
- Invasions: The empire suffered major invasions by external forces including Nadir Shah in 1739 and Ahmad Shah Abdali in 1761, which severely undermined the Mughal authority and economy.
- Economic Decline: Excessive taxation, extravagant spending by the nobility and royalty, coupled with administrative inefficiencies, contributed to the economic weakening of the empire.
- British Expansion: The British East India Company capitalized on the weakening Mughal power by employing diplomacy, forming alliances, and engaging in decisive battles such as Plassey (1757) and Buxar (1764), leading to gradual colonial domination.
UPSC Exam Relevance
- GS-1: Medieval history; monuments; socio-cultural evolution.
- GS-4: Ethics – comparison of Akbar’s tolerance vs. Aurangzeb’s rigidity.
- Essay: “Was Akbar a Nation Builder?” | “Mughals and Cultural Synthesis” | “Rise and Fall of Empires”
- Prelims: Battles, rulers, administrative terms (mansabdari, zabti), monuments.
Quick Revision Notes
- First Battle of Panipat (1526): Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi using superior military tactics and artillery.
- Third Battle of Panipat (1761): Marathas vs. Afghan forces; created a power vacuum exploited by the British.
- Din-i Ilahi: Introduced by Akbar in 1582 as a syncretic spiritual order.
- Sulh-i Kul: Akbar’s principle of universal peace and tolerance.
- Jizya Tax: Reimposed by Aurangzeb in 1679, reversing Akbar’s secularism.
- Peacock Throne: Commissioned by Shah Jahan; looted by Nadir Shah in 1739.
Sample UPSC-Style MCQs
